Cross-cultural families

de Bruin, K., & Lim, B. (in press). Cross-cultural families. Encylcopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology (ECCSP). Springer: International Publishing House (due for publication in 2007)

Introduction

The cultural landscape of the United States is changing rapidly. This country has always been rich in diversity, a look at the most recent statistics released by the U.S. Census Bureau will further attest to this. In the mid-twentieth century, Caucasians Americans were in the majority, but by mid-twenty-first century, the minority families are expected to grow more rapidly than the Caucasians. Intermarriage is becoming more and more common in this country, with more than 50% of Americans marrying outside their ethnic group. Marriage between Blacks and Whites has tripled in the past 30 years. With the structure of families changing rapidly, the nation faces new challenges in issues of parenting, family dynamics, and students' cultural identity.

As culture, ethnicity, race, and class interface, a multi-cultural generation is being formed, especially in the school system. Classrooms become increasingly diverse. This has implications for the method of instruction in schools to meet the needs of the students; it also affects the attitudes held towards different people groups.

The term ‘melting pot’ has been used to describe the fusion of cultures when they collide. Assimilating with the dominant culture by giving up one’s own unique heritage is shown to be detrimental to the minorities' well-being. There are many different ethnic groups in the U.S. and each is unique in its own right. It is important not to over-generalize about the characteristics of each ethnic group of people. However, an effort to point out the distinctiveness and similarities that exist between them will be a starting point to cross-cultural understanding. School counselors are cultural brokers as they become sensitive to the needs and intricacies of the different cultures in the classrooms.

Statistics – Where Are We Headed

The US Census Bureau runs a Population Estimates Program that estimates the total resident population of the country. This is done on an annual basis. Alongside the estimates, the Program also recalculates and publishes changes in estimates based on current data. Changes in population are based on the number of births, death, and migration that takes place. Estimates are for both the present and the past. The Census also looks at future projections of population that are calculated according to components of change such as fertility, mortality, and migration.

Race categories used by the census currently are American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, Black/African American, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, White, and Some Other Race. Two categories for ethnicity are also included, either Hispanic/Latino or Other.

Results from the 2004 Total Population Survey are as follows (Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2004 American Community Survey):

Race Category	Population Count	Percentage
Total Population count	285,691,501
White alone	216,036,244	75.6
Black or African American alone	34,772,381	12.17
American Indian or Alaska Native alone	2,151,322	0.75
Asian alone	12,097,281	3.50
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander alone	403,832	0.14
Some other race alone	14,824,724	5.18

Table 1. 2004 Total Population Survey

According to the Projected Change from 2000 to 2050, based on the US Census Bureau 2004 and released on March 18, 2004, the table below shows the percentage growth rate by race:

Total population projected estimate growth between 2000-2050 is 48.8%

Race Categories	Population	Percentage
White alone	302,626	32.4
Black alone	61,361	71.3
Asian alone	33,430	212.9
All other races	22,437	217.1
Hispanic (of any race)	102,560	187.9

Table 2. Total Population Projected Estimate Growth.

European Americans have been in the majority in the United States, and according to these projections, this is going to change in the next few decades. Beyond 2050, the minority races will together exceed the majority race.

Terms Defined

Culture refers to the values, beliefs that are institutionalized in a people’s collective life, thereby the outward discipline in which inherited meanings, morality, beliefs, and ways of behaving are preserved. These are the customs and civilizations of a particular time and people group. Culture takes on a particular life that is often more readily seen from those outside looking inward.

Ethnicity describes men and women who usually share a common place of ancestral origin, a traditional language, and a historical religion, which together confer a distinctive social identity. This stems from having common national or even cultural tradition, and manifests as customs such as eating certain foods and wearing certain clothes. People are aware of their ethnicity as they share customs and traditions.

Race relates to people who share biologically transmitted traits that are defined as socially significant. There are major divisions of humankind with distinct physical characteristics such as the categories cited above by the US Census Bureau.

Class identifies the social stratum whose members share certain economic, social, or cultural characteristics. Class refers to any set of persons grouped together or classified in some categories of society. Examples include the lower-income, middle, upper, working, professional classes, social rank, or caste. Class intersects with the other cultural variables such as education and race. Some people are more class-conscious that others.

The Myth of the Melting Pot

The Declaration of Independence as written by Thomas Jefferson states that, “…all men (and women) are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, among which are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” Freedom, democracy, and equality are the core values of this country; they ensure that all people irrespective of ancestry, gender, color, creed, or disabilities live together respectfully.

Pledging allegiance to the country has meant for some the giving up their different identities to serve the greater good, usually of the dominant majority. All citizens are expected to join the big melting pot of America. The ‘melting pot’ is a term used to describe this process of cultures fusing together and each people group losing their identity. This may seem desirable in order to recreate a distinct nationhood. This thinking is based on the notion that ancestry and cultural heritage are unimportant. For cultures that are expressly different from the white majority, there is a lot to sacrifice both communally and psychologically as well.

Culture influences society at multiple levels, it influences daily practices such as family life and the kinds of occupations people chose. Family is defined differently in different cultures, lying anywhere on a continuum from Euro-American nuclear family, to family that embraces kin and community as in Black families, and on the other end of the continuum where descendents and ancestors are considered part of the Asian families. Life transitions are emphasized differently, with Irish viewing death as most important transition, while Italians emphasizing weddings, to the Bar Mitzvah being a very important event for the Jewish people. Special occasions such as weddings, Christmas, Easter, and New Year are celebrated differently with dancing, partying, eating, or praying. Different occupations are emphasized by different ethnic groups; Germans favor engineering, Greeks tend toward the restaurant business, Asians favor business and professions, while Irish are drawn to politics and police work. Boundaries are viewed differently; with Puerto Ricans having such flexible family boundaries that children are often on loan to others, whereas for Greeks, boundaries are defined by bloodlines and adoption is not usually practiced.

Everyone in the U.S. has a unique heritage, and with the exception of the native Indians, Americans have come from foreign lands at different times. Immigrants bring with them different ways of living life, doing family, and practicing beliefs. They come together in this country, and depending on their identity development, they adjust to this new culture in various ways. The degree to which they know where they have come from is the degree to which they express themselves freely in their present and future endeavors. As they know about and appreciate their distinctiveness, they are free to accept their differences and to be all that they can be. Paradoxically, this further enhances tolerance and unity as people learn to live and grow together. This paradigm does not reinforce the idea of the ‘melting pot.’ A more suitable metaphor may be a salad bowl. Each vegetable in the salad bowl maintains their uniqueness and yet by itself does not fully achieve the taste sensation that the salad provides.

Social scientists are finding that during times of stress and crisis, people revert to old or familiar sources of comfort, such as rituals, behaviors, beliefs that they grew up with. The unique heritage that is a deep part of them cannot be denied. This heritage longs to find its expression, in family patterns, beliefs, thinking, feeling, and behavior. There are social and psychological benefits to being true to one’s heritage. Social psychology researchers have studied the development of identity, and Erik Erikson has written extensively on this subject. His model for development of the individual is psychosocial; he purports that during various stages of life individuals must make an adjustment to self and to the social environment. The social milieu plays an important role, and the term ‘identity crisis’ is used for people who are confused about the transition that they are negotiating due to societal cultural expectations.

The desire to belong is basic to any human being, and it fulfills a deep psychological need for identity and historical continuity. People who reject their past in an effort to adapt too readily by adopting what is familiar in a new environment, do so at a detriment to their psychological well-being. People must remain true to their cultural heritage and to their socio-cultural environment. This becomes more critical for people who have migrated. They need to find a balance between being true to their ancestral origins, and learning to be open to their new surroundings. Acculturation of this form is a trying and timely process, but in the end, biculturalism or multiculturalism may be most healthy for the families concerned.

Each people group has intracultural differences, and yet the culture in itself has similarities that make it distinct from others. The rest of this article is an attempt to understand each cross-cultural family by highlighting their similarities and the way each of the constructs of race, class, ethnicity, and culture interact together.  

American Indian Families

American Indian families are indigenous to this Country. There has been a tendency to see them as a homogenous group, resulting in a blurring of the distinctions between a number of different tribal groups and clans. The American Indians were subjected to a history of genocide. They were labeled as “uncivilized”, denigrated for their customs and religious beliefs. Families were torn apart by the relocation plan in the 1950’s and 60’s. As people migrated to cities alcoholism rates soared, suicide and rates of violence elevated. School drop out rates rose, along with teenage pregnancy and unemployment.

During recent years American Indians are embracing their culture and respect for this culture is on the rise. Indian history is included in school curricula; stereotypes are being replaced with new respect. Diversity in tribe, language and lifestyle is being acknowledged. Because of the history of victimization of Indians by missionaries, schoolteachers, social workers, a skepticism of the helping profession remains. School counselors should be aware of this, and will have to work to build rapport with these families. This can be done by displaying personal authenticity, showing genuine respect and concern for the families involved.

Each tribe has their own worldview. What American Indians share in common is strong family ties, an attachment to the natural environment, and a distinct spirituality. Family ties are strong and inclusive. A child’s primary relationship is with their grandparents, and grandparents may or may not be biological grandparents, they could include a great aunt or other relations. There is no such thing as in-law relationships, when someone marries into a family they are treated as natural family members. People identify themselves by their relatives, the tribe they belong to and the family they represent.

Indian people value listening, and periods of silence are not uncommon. This is a form of communication. Resist the need to interrupt; as being ‘listened to’ is essential in this culture. Time is also perceived differently and it is not uncommon for an Indian to show up later than a meeting is scheduled for.

Jewish Families 

Jewish Americans have immigrated from Spain, Germany, the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, South Africa and from Israel. Getting married and raising children is a core value in this culture. The family is seen and treated as a haven, and there is a strong connection with previous generations. Education and professional achievement is another central value with success being sought after. With schooling and education being taken seriously, school counselors may find that Jewish parents are likely to be very involved in their children’s schooling. Suffering is shared easily because this is a central part of the Jewish history and is not denied. For this reason, and because families tend to be child-focused, children are encouraged to talk about their problems.

Asian-American Families

Asian-American families emigrate from different countries in Asia. According to the US 1990 Census, the five main groups are Chinese (23% of the Asian population), Pilipino (19%), Japanese (12%), Korean (11%), Asian Indian (11%), and Vietnamese (9%). The Asians is the fastest growing minority group in the United States, projected to increase by 212.9% between 2000 and 2050. The different Asian ethnic groups are not homogeneous but they do share some common characteristics.

Asian culture is ancestor-oriented and collectivistic rather than individualistic; dependency oriented rather than independence-oriented. Among the Chinese people, for instance, the family name comes first, followed by the individual name. This illustrates the importance of the family in the culture. There is a great sense of duty and obligation to the family; the need to be accepted by the community is paramount. The culture is shame-based and so "face-saving" and harmony is important in interpersonal relationships. Moral order is maintained through respectful manners. Conveying genuine concern and showing interpersonal graces are necessary as part of familial relationships.

Family structure is hierarchical, with the line of authority extending from the fathers, to first-born sons, male sons, and then to mothers and daughters. To work with these families effectively, the family structure must be assessed. The father, who is the head of the family, must be addressed first. If the father is not present, the counselor needs to identify the most influential person first before you speaking with the rest of the family. The Asian culture gives great deference and honor to those in authority. Counselors establish credibility by using official titles when addressing the head of the family and when making personal introductions. Since education and expertise play a key role among most Asian cultures, a display of the counselors' licenses or diplomas will enhance their credibility. Teachers and counselors are highly respected. The counselors are expected to be experts and are often sought for authoritative answers and direct advice. Ambivalence can be considered a weakness.

The more recent Asian immigrants tend to be less expressive and assertive. Love is not verbally or physically communicated instead it is shown in concrete and pragmatic ways. Family harmony is to be kept at all cost, and so emotions that could disrupt harmony to the family are not expressed outwardly. A major consequence of this is somatization that tends to take place. Therefore, a competent cross-cultural school counselor will take greater notice of some of the physical complaints of the person and listen to the non-verbal communication.

Latino-American Families

The Latinos (or in some context known as Hispanics or Chicanos), have a multidimensional identity, representing a variety of nationalities, skin color, cultures, traditions, values, beliefs, worldviews, and languages. Majority of the Latinos originate from Mexico (67%), Puerto Rico (13%) and Cuba (6%), and the rest, come from the Dominican Republic, and Central America/South American groups (14%).

Latinos experience a national pecking order among themselves, attributing different qualities to where they are from. National heritage is of extreme importance to them, as it provides a sense of pride and identity. They work hard to maintain their language, traditions, and ways of life. They have a strong sense of family unity, personal warmth, and respect for elders. Possibly, the most significant value is that of family unity, welfare, and honor. To them, family guarantees protection and provision, and they have a system of kinship that is both biological but also includes those not related by blood, such as adopted children and godparents. A school counselor might utilize the family as a source of support and information. This can be done by inviting extended family members to meetings.

Families (familismo) are very important to the culture and they tend to be hierarchical in organization role expectations. Men (machismo) and women (marianismo) are taught different codes for behavior. Older children have greater authority than younger children do, with males having greater authority than females.

Religion is very important to the Latinos. The majority identifies with the Catholic religion, and some are Protestants. Religion permeates their lives. Many incorporate folk healing beliefs (curanderos/as). There is a loyalty to charismatic leaders (personalismo), in which an individual would not mind sacrificing their self-interests for the leader. In that sense, Latinos have a loyalty towards the school counselors or teachers if they are trustworthy, and they are deemed as friends rather than counselors.

For cross-cultural counselors, the use of an interpreter is encouraged, though it is important that interpreters are adults, and preferably, of the same nationality, social class and even skin color as the family. Role reversal by using a child in the family as an interpreter should be avoided. The Latino families object to involvement of children in adult business, and such involvement of children can disrupt the family’s structural boundaries and rules for functioning.

Latinos come from a legacy of loss and oppression. Many have immigrated to the United States with the hope for a better life but find that here too they face oppression and discrimination. This can add to their distrust of American systems, such as school, legal or social services. It is important to be sensitive to their distress and distrust of the system. Pronouncing the person's name correctly is crucial. Formality, especially initially is viewed as a sign of respect, such as addressing people by surname unless invited to do otherwise.

Middle Eastern Families

Arab-Americans have emerged with their own culture. Arab is not an ethnic term but rather one of language and culture. ‘Arab’ refers to people who speak Arabic and are related to the tribes of Arabia, as well as people who usually embrace Islam as their religion.

Islam spread mostly during the 7th and 10th centuries A.D. Thereafter, the Muslim people were forced to live under different governmental systems, such as the Ottoman Empire conquered the Arabs and European dominance after World War I. During this time, there were two waves of immigrants arriving in the United States due to economic and educational reasons. In the 1980’s, the Arab world experienced a rekindling of loyalties and Islamic resurgence, furthered by the Gulf War in 1991. After the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, Arab-Americans have experienced alienation and discrimination in the U.S. Arab families here are likely to feel friction between the Western secular values and their own middle-eastern culture.

The family unit is the basis of community. Men, women, and children are given particular duties and roles to perform for the good of the family. Marriage is a family affair in the sense that marriage is arranged by the family and not based on romantic love. Arab people are also encouraged to marry within their own culture. Arab parents are more likely to engage in authoritarian disciplinary styles, such as lecturing their children and using mild punishment or fear to warn children. Because the Arab family is closely knitted, seeking help is seen as being disloyal to the family and community. They are more likely to turn to Arab-oriented services during these times.

Arab children are likely to spend more time with their mother, and the mother may even take the role of mediator between the children and their father. While school counselors may have initial contact with students’ mothers, it is essential to get father as head of the family involved. This is respectful of the family hierarchical system. Families are more likely to get involved if the school counselor will do a home visit or is willing to talk to the parents on the telephone.

Families of African Origin

African-American families have migrated from a number of countries such as Jamaica, Haiti, and the continent of Africa. Amongst themselves, they are diverse in many ways, though there are similarities too. The majority of African-Americans originally lived in the south, but they are now represented in larger cities all over the United States.

The forefathers of African-Americans came to be in this country during the Atlantic slave trade in the 17th century. They were brought over as cheap labor. This involuntary migration gave them a sense of inferiority. Oppression and white preferences exacerbated their experience. Disillusionment that evolved from oppression caused many to turn to substance abuse, which is another form of slavery, this time psychological in nature.

Despite a heritage of captivity and oppression, the African-American people have found hope and survival in their culture especially in the church, which is the only institution that has not been taken over by their white masters. The African-American come from a social structure of tribes with close-knitted family groups, and African-American continue to hold the family and kins in high regard. The family offers a tremendous source of support network. Counselors can invite the extended family to discussions at school, taking into consideration that people who are involved in the children’s lives and considered ‘family’ may or may not be blood related.

The Black family tends to be more multigenerational, including different combinations of roles within the units. It is more acceptable for women to work outside the home, similar to the tradition in Africa, where women’s contributions went beyond just childbearing. Women have found it easier to find work in this country than African-American men do, contributing to a more subtle aspect of racism, where African-American men are seen as less productive and unable to provide for their families. In many families, both male and female work, and this results in more egalitarian relationships among African-American couples, when compared to couples in other cultures. There are more African-American women than men. Because of the skewness of the sex ratio, a growing number of women are becoming single parents rather than remaining childless. It is not uncommon for children to be “parentified,” when parents are working or when families are large.

African-American parents are strict with their children, and corporal punishment is often an acceptable mode of punishment. African-American people are sensitive to protocol issues, they expect to be addressed as Mr., Mrs., Ms., or Dr. Small talk may be important to them before getting to business, as they need to get a sense of genuineness and interest in them as individuals. Respect is an important value. A culturally sensitive counselor will communicate this by focusing on family strengths, asking permission, avoiding familiarity initially, and avoiding professional jargon.

European-American Families

In 1990, Whites made up 80% of the U.S population. They come from all over Europe and identify themselves with being “Americans.” An immigration law in 1790 stated that only Americans of European descent could become U.S. citizens. America was then understood as being ‘white.’ Many of these families have been in the U.S. for three generations or longer, and may not identify with their ancestral ethnicity. While this is the case, aspects of ethnicity that were shed may subconsciously manifest later in life or in future generations, and they may find themselves reverting back to customs and practices of their heritage. Generally, European Americans have done well for themselves and have not experienced the degree of discrimination that troubled either earlier immigrants or immigrants representing other ethnic groups. Some general characteristics of the different European Americans are listed below.

Anglo-Americans grow up with values such as being independent in exploring the world. Self-control is valued, suffering is not shared, and conflicts tend to be hidden.

Italian Americans value family above all else, eating is a symbol of celebration and connection. Roles are defined, babies are indulged, and networking is essential to business practices.

Irish American families revere Church rules. Suffering is handled alone, drinking is a way to connect socially, and talking about problems is unacceptable. Self-control is valued, and sex is not openly discussed.

Greek families tend to coddle their children. Sex is a taboo subject, women are submissive to men, older people are respected, and success in life is important.

Many families are religious and so it would be disrespectful to curse or even use harsh language when addressing these families. Because privacy and individual rights are important values, many topics are not discussed with persons outside of the marital dyad or nuclear family. Families, particularly those of Anglo descent may find themselves isolated without a supportive network. This individualism can get in the way of finding familial help and support. However, these families may be more open to receiving support in professional settings that protect privacy, such as seeking individual or family counseling. Self-initiation and self-reliance are valued, and so referral can be done by giving these families a list of resources for them to seek out on their own.

Becoming A Cross Cultural Broker

In the light of the mosaic of diversity in this nation, teachers and school counselors need to be culturally competent. Schools provide significant cross-cultural interactions. In order to understand students, an awareness of how race, religion, immigration status, class, age, disability and sexual orientation affect their identity, is important. Few people will fit exactly into the general and stereotypical descriptions given above, and so these descriptions serve only as a starting point with which to begin to help students in the context of their culture. Given the number of multiracial individuals in this country, counselors are wise to refrain from guessing or assuming a person’s ethnic identity. Respect can be shown by asking people about their ethnic background and how they self-identify. Counselors need to posit themselves as learners when it comes to knowing their students and understanding what is important to them. Acknowledgement of ignorance and taking a "curious" stance about students and their families is important. Misunderstandings may be avoided this way, and the cultural gap can be bridged.

The culturally sensitive counselors belong to a particular culture themselves. All people see the world through their own cultural lens. The goal is not to be free of a particular culture. Instead, cultural brokers recognize that they are unable to remain aloof and free of value judgments. Learning about their own heritage is the first step towards becoming culturally aware and sensitive. People who are secure in their own identities are more open to learning about other cultures. As difference is recognized and respected, the cultural brokers give up the expectation that others be like themselves.

SEE ALSO: counseling ethnicity, multi-cultural families, diversity

RESOURCES 

McGoldrick, M., Giordano, J., & Pearce, J.K. (Eds.). (1996). Ethnicity & Family Therapy. New York: Guilford Press.

McGoldrick, M. (Ed.). (2002). Re-visioning family therapy: Race, culture, and gender in clinical practice. New York: Guilford Press.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). American Fact Finder: Profile of Selected Economic Characteristics.

Suggested Resources

The website for US Census Bureau

http://factfinder.census.gov/

APA Multicultural Guidelines

http://www.apa.org/pi/multiculturalguidelines/

Contributor

Kathryn de Bruin, MA. Private Practice, Life Spring Center, San Diego

Ben K Lim, Ph.D. Associate Professor Department of Marital & Family Therapy, Bethel University, San Diego.